The Forgotten Female in the Works of Ernest Hemingway Essay -- Biograp

The Forgotten Female in the Works of Hemingway Ernest Hemingway has often been accused of misogyny in his treatment of female characters (and, perhaps, in his treatment of women in his own life). It is not fashionable these days to praise the work of Ernest Hemingway, says Frederick Busch. His women too often seem to be projections of male needfulness (1). Many of his stories are seen as prototypical bildungsroman stories--stories, usually, of young men coming of age. There are few, if any, stories in the canon of women coming of age, however, and Hemingway is not the offset printing to suffer the wrath of feminist critics. But is this wrath justified? In his dissertation, Mark G. due north reviews some of the critical literature that places Hemingway within the misogynist genre. Cliches sic abound, he says. Hemingway was in search of his manhood (an ignoble quest?) he hated women he had a death wish and a thin persona he was the archpriest of violence, etc. (6). Ho wever, Newton sees women in Hemingways works as the positive life-directed force which transports the male Hemingway hero away from a debilitating wound (2), and he places them into the roles manifested by Hemingways women in aiding the hero Ideal Women, Sister Guides, Icons and Dream Visions, Wicked Women Who Also Serve, Feminine Points of View, and Full Cycle. My problem with Newtons approach to the feminine in Hemingway is that Newton seems to accept that, in presenting women as archetypal Eves, the woman as help-meet-type image, that Hemingway is somehow presenting women favorably. A somewhat similar view is presented by Jeryl J. Prescott in Liberty for Just(Us) sex activity and Race in ... ... of Melville, Twain, and Hemingway. New York Peter Lang, 1984. Kennedy, J. Gerald. Hemingways Gender Trouble. American Literature 632 (1991) 187-207. Miller, Linda Patterson. Hemingways Women A Reassessment. Hemingway in Italy and Other Essays. Ed. Robert W,. Lewis. Praeg er, 1990. Newton, Mark G. Beyond the anguish The Role of Women in Aiding the Hemingway Hero. Dissertation U of S. Florida, 1985. Penn Warren, Robert. Ernest Hemingway, Introduction to Modern Standard Authors edition of A Farewell to Arms. New York Charles Scribners Sons, 1949. Prescott, Jeryl J. Liberty for Just(us) Gender and Race in Hemingways To Have and Have Not. College Language Association Journal 372 (1993) 176-88. Willingham, Kathy. Hemingways The Garden of Eden Writing with the Body. The Hemingway Review 122 (1993) 46-61.

Oppression in Jane Campion’s The Piano Essay -- Jane Campion The Piano

Oppression in Jane Campions The PianoJane Campions The Piano relates the story of a Scottish woman who is sent to New Zealand, during the Victorian Era, for an arranged marriage with a farmer. adenosine deaminase voluntarily gave up verbalize at the age of 6 and communicates by either signing for her daughter, writing on a small paper tablet around her neck, or, more joyously, through playing her mild. After a long and arduous journey with the piano, adenosine deaminase is forced to leave it on the beach where her boat landed. Left without her musical passion, Ada must learn to adapt in very male world.A native white man who has adopted the culture of the Maori Indians named Baines quickly discovers what the abandoned piano means to Ada. Baines secures the piano by trading 80 acres of land to the farmer and husband of Ada, Stewart. After getting the piano back to his home, he employs Ada to give him lessons, but really wants to have sex with her in exchange for the piano. Her pass ion for the music allows for this and an affair is born.The affair is discovered by Stewart and he goes caustic eventually cutting off Adas forefinger in a backwards attempt to win her love. When he realizes the futility of winning her love, Stewart sends her off with Baines. On the boat to a new home and life, Ada insists of getting rid of the piano and almost commits suicide as the piano sinks to the bottom of the ocean.This movie is beautiful to watch, yet difficult. It is raw, yet the cinematography is breath...

The Best Day of their Life - Original Writing :: Papers

The Best Day of their Life - Original Writing The prove was set with fresh frost from the cool night before. Ice covered the once lively pond, with only the lone duck perched on the ice. Icicles hung from the church service hood like the cold fingers of the dead, pointing at the floor, and the final destination of all. The headstones of all the patrons of the church ready scattered about the graveyard, all of them in a bad give tongue to of disrepair. Some had been vandalised, many had further fallen foul of time. Spray cans lay on the floor in random locations, although many of them were congregated near the crumbling stone walls of the church. The church itself was at least four hundred years old and stood towering above the surrounding houses, like a sleeping giant among the humans. Copper roof which had long turned green covered the majestic hall of the church, covered in the leftovers of the birds that enjoyed their stay there. A crooked weathe rvane hung from an old Christmas light, dangling just below the window often church steeple. The steeple had only one room in it which was just below the belfry. One cracked pane of field glass allowed light to enter the dusty room, with a small hole in the bottom of the window allowing the gun barrel to poke out, armed with a mise en scene through which a man stared. He had been there watching the churchyard, composing himself since the early morning. The sun had risen from the east and had reached its peak as the man lay in wait. Squirrels had been going about their business all morning, foraging nuts from the surrounding trees and hiding them in the ground. The feeling in his legs had disappeared slowly and now they were all in all numb, so he decided to check his escape route one last time, making sure that it was completely clear nothing must stay him from a clean break. Pre-job jitters began to kick in his hand shook as he once again placed it on the handle of

Freedom of Speech and Expression and Responsibility -- Argumentative P

immunity of Speech and Responsibility No matter how fervently someone believes in the justice of his cause, suppression of the free exchange of ideas is failure at best or downright wrong. The power or might behind an idea does not make the idea right. Many powerful multitude throughout history have been wrong. Few people, if any, would judge Mr. Smith Goes to Washington to be subversive or wrong. In 1939 Ambassador Kennedy was so caught up in the fears of the times that he was willing to use the power of his money to protect the world against a film. When people ar caught up in the movements of their time, all people must be extra zealous to guard and encourage freedom of expression. Otherwise, a mob outlook reigns, and people rush to do things that are not thought out and often regretted later. The founders of our country knew from experience how important free expression of ideas is. Many of them, on with popular demand, insisted that the Constitution immediately be amen ded by the Bill of Rights. The first article of the Bill of Rights guarantees freedom of expression Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to ask the government for a redress of grievances. Without freedom of expression, no people are truly free. Sometimes a person will hide repression by tattle people under his authority that they are free to believe anything they want--they just cant voice their beliefs. They are free to think anything, but arent allowed to say what is on their minds. What are some examples of this men... ...19. House Passes Free Speech Exception. 7 Feb. 1998. <http//www.scimitar.com/revolution/express/flag.html> (17 March 1998). LaMarche Gara. Hate Speech Should Not Be Outlawed. Civil Liberties Opposing Viewpoints. Ed. Charles P. Cozic. San Diego Greenhaven Press, 1994. 90-95. Otto, Jean. Freedom of Expression Should Not Be Restricted. Civil Liberties Opposing Viewpoints. Ed. Charles P. Cozic. San Diego Greenhaven Press, 1994. 79-84. Rupke, Roxanne. Zeeland students to recommend island of Jersey rules. Herald Sentinel. 25 March 1998 A1, A5. Showers, Robert H. Pornography Sould Be Prohibited. Civil Liberties Opposing Viewpoints. Ed. Charles P. Cozic. San Diego Greenhaven Press, 1994. 96-102. T-shirt ban Pepsi shirt gets him in trouble on Coke Day at Greenbrier High. Herald Sentinel. 26 March 1998 A1.

Extreme and Moderate Characters in Moliére’s Tartuffe Essay -- essays

Extreme and Moderate Characters in TartuffeIn Molires Tartuffe (Moir 1664), the reader is able to nail a great contrast of Extreme and Moderate characters. Extreme characters being those who are seen as over the top, or very passionate people, and the moderate characters having a more calm and subtle approach to ideas. The extreme characters in this case would be Madam Pernelle, Orgon, Tartuffe, and Dorine. The moderate characters are seen as Cleante and Elmire. One of the characters that obviously finalise into the extreme character category would be that of Madam Pernelle. Madam Pernelle is an excellent example of an extreme character because of her sharp remarks, and the idea of telling people incisively what she thinks. From the very beginning of the play, the reader is able to identify how out spoken this character is when she begins to defend Tartuffe in the opening pages.. This is demonstrated when Madam Pernelle comments on a remark made by Dorine saying, Girl, you talk t o much, and Im afraid / Youre far too saucy for a ladys maid. / You adjure in everywhere and have your say (I, I, 21) Another example of an extreme character in Tartuffe would be the character of Dorine. Much like Madam Pernelle, Dorine is an frank individual who does not like to be argued or reasoned with. She is very adamant about her idea of Tartuffe, and will not be easily persuaded into opinion otherw...

Extreme and Moderate Characters in Moliére’s Tartuffe Essay -- essays

Extreme and Moderate Characters in TartuffeIn Molires Tartuffe (Moir 1664), the reader is able to see a great oppose of Extreme and Moderate characters. Extreme characters being those who are seen as over the top, or very passionate people, and the moderate characters having a more calm and cunning approach to ideas. The extreme characters in this case would be Madam Pernelle, Orgon, Tartuffe, and Dorine. The moderate characters are seen as Cleante and Elmire. One of the characters that obviously fall into the extreme character socio-economic class would be that of Madam Pernelle. Madam Pernelle is an excellent example of an extreme character because of her sharp remarks, and the idea of telling people exactly what she thinks. From the very beginning of the play, the reader is able to identify how out spoken this character is when she begins to defend Tartuffe in the opening pages.. This is demonstrated when Madam Pernelle comments on a remark made by Dorine saying, Girl, you ta lk to much, and Im afraid / Youre far too saucy for a ladys maid. / You push in everywhere and tolerate your say (I, I, 21) Another example of an extreme character in Tartuffe would be the character of Dorine. Much wish Madam Pernelle, Dorine is an outspoken individual who does not like to be argued or reasoned with. She is very adamant about her idea of Tartuffe, and will not be easily persuaded into thinking otherw...

Deception Point Page 41

Making the raging river of air even more unnerving to Tolland was the s cleared downwind grade of the shabu shelf. The ice was sloped ever so slightly toward the ocean, two miles remote. Despite the sharp spikes on the Pitbull Rapido crampons attached to his boots, Tolland had the uneasy feeling that any misstep might set forth him caught up in a gale and sliding down the endless icy slope. Norah Mangors two-minute course in glacier safety now seemed vulnerablely inadequate.Piranha Ice ax, Norah had said, mend a lightweight T-shaped tool to each of their belts as they suited up in the habisphere. Standard blade, banana blade, semitubular blade, hammer, and adze. All you need to remember is, if anyone slips or gets caught up in a gust, grab your ax with one hand on the head and one on the shaft, ram the banana blade into the ice, and fall on it, planting your crampons.With those words of assurance, Norah Mangor had affixed YAK belay harnesses to each of them. They all donned gogg les, and headed out into the afternoon sliminess.Now, the four figures made their way down the glacier in a straight line with ten yards of belay rope separating each of them. Norah was in the incline position, followed by Corky, then Rachel, and Tolland as anchor.As they moved farther away from the habisphere, Tolland felt a growing uneasiness. In his inflated suit, although warm, he felt like some kind of uncoordinated space traveler trekking across a distant planet. The moon had disappeared behind thick, billowing storm clouds, plunging the ice sheet into an impenetrable blackness. The katabatic wind seemed to be getting stronger by the minute, applying a unalterable pressure to Tollands back. As his eyes strained through his goggles to make out the expansive emptiness around them, he began to perceive a dependable danger in this place. Redundant NASA safety precautions or not, Tolland was surprised the administrator had been allowing to risk four lives out here instead of t wo. Especially when the redundant two lives were that of a senators daughter and a famous astrophysicist. Tolland was not surprised to feel a protective concern for Rachel and Corky. As someone who had captained a ship, he was used to feeling responsible for those around him.Stay behind me, Norah shouted, her voice swallowed by the wind. Let the sled lead the way.The aluminum sled on which Norah was transporting her examen gear resembled an oversized Flexible Flyer. The craft was prepacked with diagnostic gear and safety accessories shed been using on the glacier over the past few days. All of her gear-including a battery pack, safety combusts, and a powerful front-mounted spotlight-was bound under a secured, plastic tarp. Despite the heavy load, the sled glided effortlessly on long, straight runners. plane on the almost imperceptible incline, the sled moved downhill on its own accord, and Norah applied a gentle restraint, almost as if allowing the sled to lead the way.Sensing t he distance growing between the group and the habisphere, Tolland looked over his shoulder. Only fifty yards away, the pale curvature of the dome had all however disappeared in the blustering(a) blackness.You at all worried about finding our way back? Tolland yelled. The habisphere is almost invisi- His words were cut short by the loud hiss of a flare igniting in Norahs hand. The sudden red-white glow illuminated the ice shelf in a ten-yard radius all around them. Norah used her heel to savvy a small impression in the surface snow, piling up a protective ridge on the upwind side of the hole. Then she rammed the flare into the indentation.High-tech bread crumbs, Norah shouted.Bread crumbs? Rachel asked, shielding her eyes from the sudden light.Hansel and Gretel, Norah shouted. These flares will last an hour-plenty of time to find our way back.With that, Norah headed out again, leading them down the glacier-into the darkness once again.47Gabrielle Ashe stormed out of Marjorie tench s office and practically knocked over a secretary in doing so. Mortified, all Gabrielle could see were the photographs-images-arms and legs intertwined. Faces filled with ecstasy.Gabrielle had no idea how the photos had been taken, but she knew damn well they were real. They had been taken in Senator sextons office and seemed to have been shot from above as if by hidden camera. God help me. One of the photos showed Gabrielle and Sexton having sex directly on top of the senators desk, their bodies sprawled across a scatter of official-looking documents.Marjorie Tench caught up with Gabrielle outside the Map Room. Tench was carrying the red envelope of photos. I assume from your reaction that you believe these photos are authentic? The Presidents senior adviser actually looked like she was having a good time. Im hoping they persuade you that our other data is hi-fi as well. They came from the same source.Gabrielle felt her entire body flushing as she marched down the hall. Where the hell is the exit?Tenchs gangly legs had no trouble keeping up. Senator Sexton swore to the population that you two are platonic associates. His televised statement was actually quite convincing. Tench motioned smugly over her shoulder. In fact, I have a tape in my office if youd like to refresh your memory?Gabrielle needed no refresher. She remembered the press conference all too well. Sextons denial was as adamant as it was heartfelt.Its unfortunate, Tench said, sounding not at all disappointed, but Senator Sexton looked the American people in the eye and told a bald-faced lie. The worldly concern has a right to know. And they will know. Ill see to it personally. The only question now is how the public finds out. We believe its best coming from you.Gabrielle was stunned. You really think Im going to help lynch my own expectation?Tenchs face hardened. I am trying to take the high ground here, Gabrielle. Im giving you a chance to save everyone a lot of embarrassment by holding yo ur head high and telling the truth. All I need is a signed statement admitting your affair.Gabrielle stopped short. WhatOf course. A signed statement gives us the leverage we need to deal with the senator quietly, sparing the country this ugly mess. My offer is simple Sign a statement for me, and these photos never need to see the light of day.You want a statement?Technically, I would need an affidavit, but we have a notary here in the building who could-Youre crazy. Gabrielle was walking again.Tench stayed at her side, sounding more angry now. Senator Sexton is going down one way or another, Gabrielle, and Im offering you a chance to get out of this without visual perception your own naked ass in the morning paper The President is a decent man and doesnt want these photos publicized. If you just give me an affidavit and admit to the affair on your own terms, then all of us can retain a little dignity.Im not for sale.Well, your candidate certainly is. Hes a dangerous man, and hes b reaking the law.Hes breaking the law? Youre the ones breaking into offices and taking illegal surveillance pictures Ever heard of Watergate?We had nothing to do with gathering this dirt. These photos came from the same source as the SFF campaign-funding information. Someones been watching you two very closely.Gabrielle tore past the security desk where she had gotten her security badge. She ripped off the badge and tossed it to the wide-eyed guard. Tench was still on her tail.Youll need to ascertain fast, Ms. Ashe, Tench said as they neared the exit. Either bring me an affidavit admitting you slept with the senator, or at eight oclock tonight, the president will be forced to go public with everything-Sextons financial dealings, the photos of you, the works. And believe me, when the public sees that you stood idly by and let Sexton lie about your relationship, youll go down in flames right beside him.

Colgate Max Fresh Essay

Gross world product up 2.5% in 2005, following two years of 1% growth. boilers suit emerge market economies exploding + 10% GDP growth in China and + 6% growth in Latin America. Political values in emerging markets may make it difficult for foreign competition to enter market without domestic partner and / or foreign investment & market diversification slight attractive(import / export tariffs). Situational analytic thinking Situational Analysis Industry Purpose of the Oral Personal Care industry is to prevent teeth and gum diseases and deliver ornamental benefits. Scope of the industry includes tooth previous(prenominal)e, floss, mouth rinses and toothbrushes. Industry Definition CompetitionColgate has dominant market value share in China (32%) and Mexico (82%). China market fall apart with Colgate & P&G representing 53% of share. Situational Analysis Industry Product Development growth strategy with launches of premium tier shuffling extensions jacket Whitening Expressio ns (US) eyeshade With Scope (US), Colgate Icy Fresh (China), Crest Cool Expressions (MX).Brand Position Competition strategy (P&G)C+S = toothpaste + mouthwash + bleachingCWE / CCE = mollify + toothpaste + whiteningEntering Emerging food markets under its Crest dishonor without JV partners. Leveraging x-brand scale with Crest + Scope.Built its brand around therapeutic benefits, while cosmetic benefits market growing fastest in Emerging Markets. Innovating in cosmetic segment a historic Colgate strongh centenarian. Heavily invests in advertising behind sore product launches. Situational Analysis Growth Market Strategies Porter Five Forces Analysis Global Oral Personal Care Colgate Palmolive Oral Care SWOT Analysis Situational Analysis Marketing Strategy Pricing Positioned as a superintendent-premium brand, price parity to Crest Cool Expressions (14.99 15.99 pesos). Marketing Budget $2MM marketing budget aimed to jam means trial through in-store merchandising, sampling, an d public relations. Corporate Marketing Strategy ObjectivesColgate goop Fresh (CMF) Mexico Marketing PlanStrategicGrowth driven by in high spirits margin core business.Advertising focused on high margin products and high potential markets. Innovation driven 40% of sales from products launched in past 5 years. TacticalGrowth Strategy Product Development Super Premium segmentGrowth Targets China 2% YR1, 2.8% YR2 MX 5% YR1, 6% YR2 value share. Will require trading up consumers. Value Proposition CMF would drive new dimension of freshness Target Market Geared towards 18-34 yr. old adults (female oriented) augment Colgates strong competitive position in Value & Mid-Tier. Situational Analysis Marketing StrategyWill US obtained media course of studys translate? fecal matter Colgate effectively trade-up consumers?What impact will supportnibalization capture on profitability?Is market full-grown enough in Mexico for premium segments?Will benefits of CMF convey to Mexico consumers?BASE S testing and Consumer Viability office showed marginal promise.. CMF Marketing Concerns for MexicoSymptoms of Colgate Palmolives Primary Problem Emerging Market consumers are price sensitive Crest attacking cosmetic segmentConsumers investigate through trial vs. large initial purchase Despite Growth in key areas Colgate-Palmolive operating profits and net income are down. +6.5% unit brashness growth+7% sales buck growth+0.1% growth in gross profit margin-2% Operational Profit-7% Net IncomeTo drive growth Colgate-Palmolive is looking to focus on higher margin core businesses. Core Elements of the Strategic Problem In the US toothpaste market CP is seeing a 3.1% increase in volume of sales attributable to the Super Premium Toothpaste Category.Global Strategic Opportunity exists in the Premium Toothpaste market. Represents $75 M sales dollar increase and innate market cap of $409.5 M dollars Only the Premium Toothpaste Category is growing at a substantial rate.In 2004 CP capture d 60% of that gross revenue Dollar Increase in the US largely dues to the incoming of Colgate Max Fresh.In order to continue to grow CP must(prenominal) find a way to develop their Premium Toothpaste product CMF in emerging countries. Colgate Palmolives Primary ProblemWould the costs of adopting CMF in to each one new country provide fit incremental sales and profits to justify the added complexity of localized marketing and rollout images associated with those new markets. Colgate-Palmolive must continue to globalize its Premium Toothpaste Strategy. Any solution must balance they cost of localization with the expected sales and profit increase for each new market. Also it is in Colgate-Palmolives best interest to develop reusable guidelines as it approaches other new markets similar to China and Mexico. Colgate Palmolives Secondary ProblemsType 1 Establish a tactical marketing plan for the CMF rollout in an emerging market where Colgate-Palmolive has little previously establi shed presence(China)Type 2 Establish a tactical marketing plan for the CMF rollout in an established market that has high competitor activity(Mexico). In order to establish an effective global strategy two types of secondary problems must be solved in the Colgate Max Fresh Case Study Any solution must balance they cost of localization with the expected sales and profit increase for each new market. Secondary Problem Detail Need to introduce a product to push Colgate-Palmolive profitability Colgate has worldwide share, the only way to expand is to drive high margin business. China(new markets) have strongly entrenched local brands.Colgate Max fresh will need to compete with its own joint venture brand Darlie(High End). Due to new product introduction at the Super Premium Toothpaste Market competitor Crest has 3% growth year to year, Colgate Equity Brands have been stagnant for 3 years. CP is not only loosing out on possible profits but also slowly loosing market share to its 1 compet itor. Market is unfamiliar with CMF breath stripsUS Marketing Video will be ineffective due to the US Star involved. Is it worth creating new celebrity back marketing content? Will the Go Big or Go Home strategy work in China and other similar markets? How can Colgate-Palmolive best enter the Chinese Market with CMF. ChinaSecondary Problem Detail Colgate-Palmolive knows P&G will be introducing Crest Cool Expressions(CWE) in Mexico in the near future. CO must develop the best marketing plan to stunt P&G Crest Cool Expressions while hold dear their overwhelming market share. 82% Value share for Colgate-PalmoliveCP needs to create a marketing plan to introduce CMF with limited budget and maximize regional utility. Due to CPs large inherent market share, the goal of the Mexican campaign will be to maximize the product funnel. There is a large opportunity present to upsell customers from the Big Red Brand toothpaste to the new CMF toothpaste. Mexico See Exhibit 17 Will waiting to introd uce CMF until after the CWE product introduction change the company estimates of profitability? Can the Mexico Snowsurfer commercial be better standardized for global marketing plans? Going forward how will CP utilize this marketing plan for future markets? Colgate-Palmolive beau monde Alternatives Locally make the clear bottle Works for China, not Mexico ChinaAllows for ease of expansion of the Colgate Max Fresh brand in clear bottle to other regional locales Also, provides future capabilities for use in other new products ProblemsThis does add 20% variable cost to COGSInitiates a 6 month delay on production$1.5 M sunk cost before productionAlternatives Colgate-Palmolive Company AlternativesRegional Market AlternativesMexicoChinaColgate-Palmolive Company Alternatives Provide more trial availability with the smaller packages to sway more to give CMF a try CMF has the breathstrips or cooling crystals within the toothpaste, and then bundle the breath strips package with CMF to build awareness. Stop utilizing celebrities to promote CMFProvide regional flavorsKeeps product as a premium productCost of $200,000 per flavorHas shown promising outcomes in other regionsIn China, Crest utilized a tea flavor and Colgate a salt flavor In Russia, after cathartic a local flavor, the toothpaste market share rose from 11.8% in 2002 to 24.9% in 2005. Colgate-Palmolive Company Alternatives Allows for greater differentiation between the CWE toothpaste In Mexico, drop the price from 15.99 pesos to 14.99 pesos to protect a greater share of CP market share. In Mexico and other markets CP is highly entrenched in, utilize clear bottle In Mexico, Keep the price at 15.99 pesosImplementation Strategic Vs. Tactical Plans The strategic plan moving forward for emerging markets will be to use an easily customizable commercial and adapt it to quadruplex countries Colgate is the dominant toothpaste brand world wide, so our primary goal will be to prevent Crest from gaining market share and also to upsell our existing customers to the super premium segment We agree with the decision to use a celebrity commercial in China due to the size of the market share the Crest is cultivating Each region and culture has a different set of values and preferences Each region will have a unique tactical plan to maximize effectiveness Jay Chou Colgate Max Fresh Commercial Implementation in China Dispensing the toothpaste in clear bottles to build brand awareness Colgate-Palmolive has invested a large amount of capitol in the Max Fresh marketing campaign Maximize the recidivate on investment byTransition to less valuable packaging once consumers are familiar with product Include breath strip samples with Max Fresh tooth paste in selected markets Snowsurfer Commercial (English Dub) Implementation in Mexico Our strategies in Mexico will be very similar to our plan in other emerging markets Focus will be on preserving our market share instead of new growthUse clear bottle and breath st rip samples in select markets to increase brand awareness Colgate accounts for 82% of total market share compared to 10.2% of Crests total market share Crest + Scope only accounts for 3%of total market share dance orchestra price at 14.99 pesos per 100 mlWe will re-evaluate our Colgate Total (19.36 pesos per 100 ml) marketing campaign to focus on the affluent 40+ age assort to minimize cannibalization Implementation in Brazil Characteristics of the Brazilian Market 71% of Brazilians agree that music is an significant part of my life 33% have participated in trips to the beach in the last 30 days 76% agree that it is important to be attractive to the opposite sex 65% agree that it is important to keep young looking32% express the desire for plastic surgery in order to improve their appearanceStatistics from Geoff Wicken, KMR GroupTactical Strategy Brazil Vollyball is the 2nd most popular sport in Brazil To become a sponsor on the FIVB circuit, we must apply by July 31, 2006 update packaging to include Made in BrazilThe busy season in Rio De Janeiro December to March, so we recommend kicking off a average marketing campaign in October 2006 This will give Colgate-Palmolive a chance to evaluate the success of the BreathStrip samples in China and Mexico If we do not see the return on investment we will not include the promotional packaging in Brazil Brazilians place a high emphasis on existence attractive to the opposite sex, which means there could a tremendous opportunity to market Colgate Max Fresh as a product that will whiten teeth and make you more kissable Adapt the SnowSurfer commercial to the Brazilian marketSponsor a national beach vollyball tournamentConclusion Colgate-Palmolive is actively want ways to increase their operating profit and net income Introducing new high margin products to emerging markets will be critical to their success Marketing Colgate MaxFresh as efficiently and effectively as possible will be necessary in helping us achieve ou r financial goalsUNILEVER

Music and Personality

Music andPersonality What Does Your Taste In Music break up About YourPersonality? Could the playlists lurking on your iPod really reveal information about your spirit? Research conducted by psychologists Jason Rentfrow and Sam Gosling suggests that knowing the type of medication you get wind to can actually lead to surprisingly accurate predictions about your personality. For example, researchers found that people could make accurate judgments about an individuals levels of extraversion, creativity and open-mindedness after lis ten-spoting to ten of their favorite songs.Extraverts tend to seek out songs with heavy bass lines, while those who enjoy more complex styles such as jazz and classical euphony tend to be more creative and moderate higher(prenominal) IQ-scores. Why medicinal drug is such a significant part of peoples individualism? People may define their practice of medicineal identity by wearing particular clothes, going to certain pubs, and using certain types of slang. So its non so surprising that personality should be related to melodious preference. People can get defensive about what they like to listen to, as it is seeming to be profoundly linked to their outlook on life.The study also demonstrates the tribal function of harmonyal taste that can rationalize why people often bond over music. North (scientist) noted that classical and heavy metal music both attracts listeners with similar personalities exclusively dissimilar ages. Younger members of the personality group app arntly go for heavy metal, while their older counterparts prefer classical. However, both have the same basic motivation to hear something dramatic and theatrical, a sh atomic number 18d love of the grandiose, he said. The general public has held a stereotype of heavy metal fans being suicidally depressed and being a danger to themselves and federation in general, he said, but they are quite delicate things. Aside from their age, theyre basically the same la rge-minded of person as a classical music fan. Lots of heavy metal fans will tell you that they also like Wagner, because its big, loud and brash. Theres also a sense of study in both heavy rock and classical music, and I suspect that this is what theyre really trying to get at when they listen to that kind of music.I figure that both types of music, classical and heavy metal, both have something of the spiritual about them theyre very dramatic a lot happens. The study conducted by researchers at Heriot-Watt University looked at more than 36,000 participants from all over the world. Participants were asked to rate more than 104 different musical styles in addition to offering information about aspects of their personality. Of course this helps explain why people who like the same styles of music tend to stick together, but it goes deeper than just a similar interests thing its almost suggests a new kind of tribalism.He described the findings as dramatic and surprising. To my mi nd, writing a portrait of my group, describing their tastes and trying to reveal what kind of music they do prefer would curb me a really hard time. We have something in common. Those 4 years of co-existing in the same community brought up the similar views on particular things and music is one of them. Thats why if I asked them what style of music they prefer, they would probably answer, I cant say exactly. I listen to everything that I like, to everything that is harming to my ear. I know those guys, most of them would answer this way, believe me. =) So Ive decided to make a test, just there, on the spot. To find out what kind of music appeals to them more and consequently discover something new about their personal traits. (Unfortunately I didnt have an opportunity to try it out, but anyway the proviso itself was useful and interesting experience for me). I have 10 tracks (songs) on the CD, each student is to decide which song appeal to him more. But mind scarce one song The number of the song refers to the number of the style of music in the list below. . Pop Do you prefer to listen to the top 40 hits? Do the latest tracks from Rhianna, Selena Gomez and Flo Rida make up your workout mix? If so, chances are that you also tend to be extraverted, honest and conventional. While pop music lovers are hard-working and have high egoism, researchers suggests that they tend to be less creative and more uneasy. 2. Rap and Hip/Hop Are Snoop Dogg and Dr. Dre more your style? In spite of the stereotype that rap lovers are more aggressive or violent, researchers have actually found no such link.Rap fans do tend to have high self-esteem and are usually outgoing. 3. Country Would you rather watch CMT instead of MTV? Country music fans are typically hardworking, conventional and outgoing. While state of matter songs are often centered on heartbreak, people who gravitate towards this literary genre tend to be very emotionally stable. 4. Rock / Heavy Metal scorn the s ometimes aggressive image that rock music and heavy metal project, researchers found that fans of this style of music are usually quite gentle. They tend to be creative, but are often introverted and may suffer from low self-esteem. 5.Indie ( Just in case Independent music (often shortened to indie music or indie) is music produced independently from major commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, Do-It-Yourself approach to recording and publishing. The termination indie is sometimes also used to describe a genre (such as indie rock or indie pop) as a genre term, indie may include music that is not independently produced, and most independent music artists do not fall into a single, defined musical style or genre and usually create music that can be categorized into other genres. Do you love seeking out multiform bands and indie artists? Fans of the indie genre are typically introverted, intellectual and creative. According to resear chers, they also tend to be less hard-working and less gentle. Passivity, anxiousness and low self-esteem are other common personality characteristics. 6. Dance Do you love the fast-paced rhythms of dance music? According to researchers, people who prefer dance music are usually outgoing and assertive. 7. ClassicalClassical music lovers are typically more introverted, but are also at ease with themselves and the world around them. They are creative and have a good sense of self-esteem. 8. Jazz, Blues and Soul People who enjoy jazz, blues or soul music were found to be more extraverted with high self-esteem. They also tend to be very creative, intelligent and at ease. The research has also looked at income vs music tastes, and found that higher income music loves like punchy and exciting music, whereas lower income listeners prefer more relaxing music in general.Of course there will always be exceptions, but his findings were quite telling on a general level. The research also found that as a whole, people who are into music are plum well-rounded, creative and at ease with themselves. Much of his research is described in his book . As this is the first time that this type of research has been done in a scientific way, there is still much to find out. So, the next time you are putting together a playlist to listen to during your vary or workout, consider how your personality might be reflected in your song choices.

Which is the more reliable source for investigating people’s attitudes in 1910 towards the campaign?

Source D is a newspaper report virtually a notification by women in London in 1910 we can infer these women were Suffragettes as it was well-nigh the time of the peak in Suffrage activity and the obscenities mentioned are much closely related to those of the Suffragettes than any other group. However the designer of the article, mistakenly, refers to them throughout the report as Suffragists. This shows the writers lack of knowledge on the matter, and their ignorance to the issue leads us to call up they dont even know the full story. We can also infer from this that the author was anti all women suffrage, and all groups of women who wanted the vote Suffragettes and Suffragists.It is truly likely that the author of the newspaper article in Source D was a man. We can deduce this, as around the time it was written, we know men were considered to a greater extent all-important(a) and therefore it is unlikely there would have been many female reporters. We can also deduce this bec ause, although there were some women who were anti-suffrage, the majority were indeed men. Knowing this about the author would lead us to believe the article is biased against women and would therefore present them in the most negative light.The article has a rather talky tone to it, and although some strong facts are put across (the Suffragettes did storm the House of Commons, arrests were made, the women were led by Mrs Pankhurst and they did come from the Council of War at Caxton Hall), most of it is opinion, for instance, It was a picture of shameful recklessness, is a point of view, not a fact. However this is helpful in giving us an insight into the opinions of the national too, around this time. The article was written for the Daily Sketch, a tabloid the author would have been writing to sell papers, he would therefore be writing things that would appeal to the public and please them. We can therefore infer from the source that the public views were also anti-suffrage.Sourc e E is a postcard issued by the Suffragettes in 1910. It is obviously a piece of propaganda as it was made by the Suffragettes and is an argument in favour of votes for women. The point it is arguing and is also proving is that, you can be a decent woman (a doctor, a nurse or a mother) and not receive the vote, but an indecent man (a lunatic, a drunkard) can receive it.Both Sources are truly reliable and they are both useful in showing the reader vastly different attitudes about the campaign to gain women the vote. Source E is very good at showing us the positive side to the argument. It is very reliable in showing what Suffragettes attitudes were, however, it is purely opinionated, and being a piece of propaganda it gives us no insight into the publics view of the matter. That is why Source D is more reliable, more people supported Source Ds point of view.It is extremely useful in showing attitudes towards womens suffrage and, taking into consideration that the newspapers main ai m is to report on current affairs, the story must be more dependable and factual. world a popular tabloid also gives us a deeper insight to the views of the public, as the writers opinions would mirror those of the public-therefore, as the writers views were negative, it means the publics were too. In conclusion, Source D is more reliable for investigating peoples attitudes in 1910 towards the Suffrage campaign.

Old Folks Home Essay

Sharks are a group of tilt characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, cinque to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, andpectoral fins that are not coalesced to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha (or Selachii) and are the sister group to the rays. However, the term shark has likewise been used for extinct members of the subclassElasmobranchii outside the Selachimorpha, much(prenominal) as Cladoselache and Xenacanthus. Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years ago.Since then, sharks puzzle diversified into over 470 species. They range in size from the bantam eclipse lanternshark(Etmopterus perryi), a deep sea species of only 17 centimetres (6.7 in) in duration, to the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), the largest fish in the world, which reaches approximately 12 metres (39 ft). Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). They generally do not live in freshwater although there are a few known exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark, which can survive in both seawater and freshwater. They breathe through five to seven gill slits. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and parasites in addition to improving their fluid dynamics. They have several sets of replaceable teeth. Well-known species such as the considerable white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark, and the hammerhead shark areapex predatorsorganisms at the top of their underwater food chainTetraodontidae is a family of primarily maritime and estuarine fish of the order Tetraodontiformes. The family includes soldieryy familiar species, which are variously called pufferfish, puffers, balloonfish, blowfish, bubblefish, globefish, s thoroughly(p)fish,toadfish, toadies, honey toads, sugar toads, and sea squab.1 They are morphologically similar to the closely relatedporcupinefish, which have large external spin es (unlike the thinner, hidden spines of Tetraodontidae, which are only visible when the fish has puffed up). The scientific name refers to the four large teeth, fused into an upper and demean plate, which are used for crushing the shells of crustaceans and mollusks, their natural prey.Pufferfish are generally believed to be the second-mostpoisonous vertebrates in the world, after the golden poison frog. Certain internal organs, such as liver, and sometimes the skin, conduct tetrodotoxin and are highly toxic to most animals when eaten nevertheless, the meat of some species is considered a delicacy in Japan (as , pronounced as fugu), Korea (as bok or bogeo ), and China (as htn) when prepared by specifically trained chefs who know which part is safe to eat and in what quantity. The Tetraodontidae contain at least 120 species of puffers in 19 genera.1 They are most diverse in the tropics, relatively uncommon in the temperate zone, and completely transfer from cold waters. They are typically small to medium in size, although a few species can reach lengths of greater than deoxycytidine monophosphate cm (39 in).The paradise fish, paradisefish, or paradise gourami, Macropodus opercularis, is a species of gourami found in most types of fresh water in East Asia, ranging from the Korean Peninsula to northern Vietnam. This species can reach a length of 6.7 cm (2.6 in), though most are only about 5.5 cm (2.2 in). Paradise gouramis were one of the first ornamental fish available to western marine museum keepers, having been imported toEurope as early as the 19th century. The paradise fish is one of the more aggressive members of its family. It is more aggressive than the three spot gourami, barely less pugnacious in nature than the less commonly kept combtail.Paradise fish are fairly combative, harassing and round offing each other, as well as potentially killing small fish. In the wild, they are predators, eating insects,invertebrates, and fish fry. The populari ty of this species has waned in recent decades as much more colorful (and lots less pugnacious) species of gouramishave become widely available to hobbyists. This species is one of the few fish that can change its color (lighter or darker) in response to stimuli.Eels are elongate fish, ranging in length from 5 cm (2.0 in) in the one-jawed eel (Monognathusahlstromi)dubious discuss to 4 m (13 ft) in the slender jumbo moray.2 Adults range in weight from 30 grams (1.1 oz) to well over 25 kilograms (55 lb). They possess no pelvic fins, and many species also lack pectoral fins. The dorsal and anal fins are fused withthe caudal or tail fin, forming a single ribbon running along much of the length of the animal. Most eels live in the shallow waters of the ocean and tunnel into sand, mud, or amongst rocks. A majority of eel species are nocturnal, and thus are rarely seen. Sometimes they are seen living together in holes, or eel pits. Some species of eels also live in deeper water on the continental shelves and over the slopes deep as 4,000 m (13,000 ft). Only members of the Anguilla family regularly inhabit fresh water, only if they too return to the sea to breed. Eels begin life as flat and transparent larvae, or leptocephali.Eel larvae drift in the surface waters of the sea, feeding onmarine snow, small particles that float in the water. Eel larvae then metamorphose into glass eels and then becomeelvers before finally seeking out their juvenile and adult habitats. Freshwater elvers travel upstream and are forced to climb up obstructions, such as weirs, dam walls, and natural waterfalls. Lady Colin Campbell found, at Ballisodare, the eel fisheries were greatly improved by the hanging of loosely plaited grass ladders over barriers, enabling the elvers to ascend. The heaviest true eel is the European conger. The maximum size of this species has been reported as reaching a length of 3 m (10 ft) and a weight of 110 kg (240 lb). Other eels are longer but do not weig h as much, such as the slender giant moray which reaches 4 m (13 ft).The guppy (Poecilia reticulata), also known as million fish and rainbow fish,1 is one of the worlds most widely distributed tropic fish, and one of the most popularfreshwater aquarium fish species. It is a member of the Poeciliidae family and, like all other members of the family, is live-bearing.2 Guppies, whose natural range is in northeast federation America, were introduced to many habitats and are now found all over the world. They are highly adaptable and thrive in many different environmental and bionomic conditions.3 Male guppies, which are smaller than females, have ornamental caudal and dorsal fins, spell females are duller in colour. Wild guppies generally feed on a variety of food source including benthic algae and aquatic insectlarvae.4 Guppies are used as a model organism in the field of ecology, evolution, and behavioural studies.3They are the most ferocious fish in the world. Even the most formi dable fish, the sharks or the barracudas, usually attack things smaller than themselves. But the piranhas habitually attack things much larger than themselves. They will snap a finger off a hand incautiously trailed in the water they mutilate swimmersin all river town in Paraguay there are men who have been thus mutilated they will rend and devour alive any wounded man or beast for blood in the water excites them to madness. They will tear wounded wild fowl to pieces and bite off the tails of big fish as they grow exhausted when fighting after being hooked. But the piranha is a short, deep-bodied fish, with a blunt face and a heavily underslung or projecting lower jaw which gapes widely. The razor-edged teeth are wedge-shaped like a sharks, and the jaw muscles possess great power.The rabid, furious snaps purport the teeth through flesh and bone. The head with its short muzzle, staring malignant eyes, and gaping, cruelly armed jaws, is the embodiment of evil ferocity and the actio ns of the fish exactly tick off its looks. I never witnessed an exhibition of such impotent, savage fury as was shown by the piranhas as they flapped on deck. When fresh from the water and thrown on the boards they express an extraordinary squealing sound. As they flapped about they bit with vicious eagerness at whatever presented itself. One of them flapped into a cloth and seized it with a bulldog grip. other grasped one of its fellows another snapped at a piece of wood, and left the teeth-marks deep therein. They are the pests of the waters, and it is necessary to be exceedingly cautious about either naiant or wading where they are found. If cattle are driven into, or of their own accord enter, the water, they are commonly not molested but if by take place some unusually big or ferocious specimen of these fearsome fishes does bite an animaltaking off part of an ear, or perhaps of a teat from the udder of a cowthe blood brings up every member of the ravenous throng which is an ywhere near, and unless the attacked animal can immediately support its escape from the water it is devoured alive.28A tuna is a saltwater finfish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family (Scombridae) which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera,1 the sizes of which stragglegreatly, ranging from the bullet tuna (max. length 50 cm (1.6 ft), weight 1.8 kg (4 lb)) up to theAtlantic horse mackerel tuna (max. length 4.6 m (15 ft), weight 684 kg (1,508 lb)). The bluefin averages 2 m (6.6 ft), and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Their circulatory and respiratory systems are unique among fish, enabling them to maintain a body temperature higher than the surround water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, and is among the fastest-swimming pelagic fish the yellowfin tuna, for example, is capable of speeds of up to 75 km/h (47 mph).2 Found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of some tuna species, such as the southern bluefin tuna, have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction.3The hammerhead sharks are a group of sharks in the family Sphyrnidae, so named for the unusual and distinctive grammatical construction of their heads, which are flattened and laterally ex bunked into a hammer shape called a cephalofoil. Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus Sphyrna while the winghead sharkis placed in its own genus, Eusphyra. many not necessarily mutually exclusive functions have been proposed for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, maneuvering, and prey manipulation. Hammerheads are found worldwide in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves. Unlike most sharks, hammerheads usually swim in schools during the day, becoming solitary hunters at night. Some of these school s can be found near Malpelo Island in Colombia, Cocos Island off Costa Rica, and near Molokai Island in Hawaii. Large schools are also seen in southern and eastern Africa.starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the classAsteroidea. Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied toophiuroids, which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or basket stars. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the worlds oceans, from the tropics to frigid north-polar waters. They are found from the intertidal zonedown to abyssal depths, 6,000 m (20,000 ft) below the surface. Starfish are marine invertebrates. They typically have a central disc and five arms, though some species have more than this. Theaboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, and is covered with overlapping plates. Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tobacco pipe feet oper ated by a hydraulic systemand a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunisticfeeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates.Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs andsuspension feeding. They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can reform damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence. The Asteroidea occupy several large ecological roles. Starfish, such as the ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus) and the reef sea star (Stichaster australis), have become widely known as examples of the vertebral column species concept in ecology. The tropicalcrown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a voracious predator of coralthroughout the Indo-Pacific region, and the northern Pacific sea star is considered to be one of the worlds 100 worst invasive species.The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, but it is rather poor, as starfish tend to disintegrate after death. Only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have play a part in literature, legend, design and popular culture. They are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten.

Mandeville Analysis

Defining frailty To understand jawbones claim that society is wrong-driven, one needs to loosely certainty The Grumbling hive away which was later included in his larger work, The Fable of the Bees OR, Private Vices, Public Benefits. Mandible starts off by describing A Spacious salt away well stocks with Bees, That lived in Luxury and liberalization (Mandible, 1705, lines 1-2). He posits they were a large colony with science and industry and a good goernment, evidenced by the item that They were not Slaves to Tyranny (Mandible, 1 705, line 9).The bees worked surd at their trades, which served to make the society (the hive) thrive, simply he observes that this was not without consequences. He notes hat although the hive worked hard and Millions were employed (Mandible, 1705, line 35), there was always a separate class or group that worked harder than the rest And some were damned to Scythes and Spades, And all those hard difficult Trades Where willing Wretches daily sweat , And wear out Strength and Limbs to eat (Mandible, 1 705, lines 41-44).He also notes that there is always a group of people who will study advantage of those hard workers for their own gain, and that this deceit was wide-spread and affect all groups and trades. As evidence, he points out that people filed needless assists lawyers would delay hearings and pocket the retaining fees like burglars smell for the best way to break in physicians valued money and power over the health and well-being of their patients and instead chose to study Rules of Art the Priests of Jove, although eloquent, . Al noncurrent Muster, that could hide Their Sloth, Lust, Avarice and Pride (Mandible, 1705, lines 74, 85, 89-90) the Kings were cheated by those who served them, and even Lady Justice dropped her scales so she could grasp her bribe of gold. (Mandible, 1705, line 142). In this description of the flourishing hive, Mandible paints us a picture, not of a society flourishing from hard work, sweat, and doing the right thing, but of a society getting ahead by means of tricks, deceit, and greed.This is the correct basis for his concept of Vice. We do nothing out of pure altruism. In Mandibles eyes, everything is driven by Our own self-interest, our need to fulfill our own wishes, Wants, and desires through selfishness, dis true(p)y and indulgence on luxury goods. In the Preface of his larger work, The Fable of the Bees or, Private Vices, PublicBenefits, Mandible clarifies his position further when he states so they that contemplate into the Nature of Man, abstract from Art and Education, may observe, that what renders him a Sociable Animal, consists not in his desire or Company, Good-nature, Pity, Affability, and other Graces of a fair Outside but that his vilest and most hateful Qualities are the most necessary Accomplishments to fit him for the largest, and, according to the World, the happiest and most flourishing Societies (Mandible, 1714, p. ). Mandibles views were ref uted by Adam Smith in his 1759 work, The Theory f Moral Sentiments when he stated Every thing, according to him, is luxury which exceeds what is absolutely necessary for the support of human nature, so that there is vice even in the use of a clean shirt, or of a convenient habitation (Smith, 1 759, p. 506). It is Smiths view that there is no vice present or mean when our actions are honorable and noble (Smith, 1759, p. 501).However, even Smith, who was one of Mandibles biggest detractors, later admitted But how destructive sever, this system may appear, it could never switch imposed upon so wide a number of persons, nor eve occasioned so general an alarm among those who are the friends of better principles, had it not in some respects bordered upon the truth (Smith, 1 759, p. 508), leaving us to believe that perhaps Mandibles concept (and consequence) of vice is actually true.The Products of Vice In Mandibles hive, the society and its economy is driven by the vices of the bees. T heir wishes, wants, and desires for things drive the doing and consumption of these commodities. An increased demand for things will lead to much people working to produce those items, which will lead to a argue supply functional to the populace (many times at a lower cost due to mass production), and an increased consumption of those items, which leads us back to higher demand, which equals more work, and so on.Mandible also goes on to say that there is a causal relationship between this vice and the ingenuity of the worker, which leads to prosperity even for the poorest members of the hive (society) Thus Vice nursed Ingenuity, Which joined with Time and Industry Had carrys Lifes Conveniences, Its real Pleasures, Comforts, Ease, To such a Height, the very Poor Lived better than the Rich before And nothing could be added more (Mandible, 1705, lines 97-103).It is important to pause here a moment and point out that we are not discussing those items required to meet basic, day-to-da y needs (food, clothing, and housing). We are discussing those items over and above the basics, I. E. fine clothing, fancy furniture, and expensive food and drink (what he would call luxury items). This conspicuous consumption (a term first coined by Thorniest uprise in his 1 899 book entitled, The Theory of the Leisure Class An Economic Study of he Evolution of Institutions) still drives our economy today.A large portion of our state lives well above their means. They purchase houses many times larger than they need, drive vehicles marketed to upscale buyers interested in brand identification, and take out plunk for mortgages they cant afford so they can purchase huge Class A motherhood they use once a year, or install a puss which sees limited usage, all because of this need to have the things that project a certain image or lifestyle. These luxury items and the markets they drive were huge in our current society, until the bottomland fell outOf the market and everything ca me crashing down. In 2005, Carol Lloyd Of the San Francisco Chronicle noted In the U. S. , a trend in 1 sass toward large houses began, with the average coat of a home doubling over the next 50 years. This trend has been compared to the increase in SUB purchases, also often a symbol of conspicuous consumption. People have purchased huge houses even at the expense of the size of their yard, the inability to save funds for retirement, or a greatly increased modify time, up to a couple of hours.Such large homes can also facilitate other forms of consumption, in roving extra storage space for vehicles, clothes, and other objects (Lloyd, 2005). In The Theory of the Leisure Class, Evolve argued that social honor was originally based on ownership of private property. In earlier times, wealth was seen as evidence of the instinct of workmanship, but more recently wealth itself is worthy of praise. Originally, the leisure time class sought to demonstrate its wealth by not working. But as i ndustrial society evolved, conspicuous consumption became the best way to demonstrate ones wealth.The leisure class is expected to consume the best in food, drink, shelter, argotic, services, ornaments, apparel, amusements, and so on, and because the leisure class stands at the top of this ranking system, it is incumbent on all classes that rank below them to follow their example (Evolve, 1899, Chi. 4). When Vice is Removed So what happens when vice is removed from society? In Mandibles hive, the bees eventually get tired of living in greed and injustice, so they call on Jove to bring legality to their society. But, Oh ye Gods What Consternation, How vast and sudden was the Alteration In half an Hour, the Nation round, Meat fell a Penny in the Pound (Mandible, 1 705, lines 242-245). Even the lawyers were affected in this new society The Bar was silent from that Day For today the willing Debtors deliver On which, since nothing less can thrive, Than Lawyers in an honest Hive (Mandi ble, 1705, lines 250-251 256-257). Justice returned, physicians tended the ill, the clergy ministered, but yet, the hive was still collapsing.Virtue has been restored, but the society begins to self-destruct. With the drive for self-interest gone, economic development dies and the bees become lazy and unmotivated. The bees are now look ating off Stately Horses by whole sets And Country Houses to pay Debts (Mandible, 1705, lines 325-326) they are moving to other trades where they feel they can make a living, provided to find that those trades are oer-stocked accordingly (Mandible, 1 705, lines 342). Their lands and houses arent worth what they paid for them, work is scarce, all, it seems is lost.So, they resolve to go about everyday life, living as simply as they can to get by And, when they paid the Tavern Score, Resolved to enter it no more (Mandible, 1705, lines 357-358). The Haughty Chloe has to sell her furniture from the Indies, she goes longer before get new clothes, and th e rare fruits she previously enjoyed are now a thing of the past (Mandible, 1705, lines 367-381). It seems that by seeking honesty and virtue, the society destroyed itself. The bees start to surrender the hive.The few that remain take shelter in a hollow tree, Blest with content and Honesty (Mandible, 1705, lines 407-408), In the last part of the doggerel, Mandible presents The MORAL past leave Complaints Fools only strive To make a Great an honest Hive. Tendon the Worlds Conveniences, Be Famed in War, yet live in Ease Without great Vices, is a vain Utopia seated in the Brain. Fraud, Luxury, and Pride must live Whilst we the Benefits receive (Mandible, 1705, lines 409-416).Mandible commented in the preface to Fable Of the Bees that he wrote The Grumbling Hive to show the Vileness of the Ingredients that all unneurotic compose the wholesome Mixture of a well-ordered Society. He further stated that For the main object of the Fable Is to she show the Impossibility of enjoying all the most elegant Comforts of Life that are to be met with in an industrious, lathe and powerful Nation, and at the same time be blesss with all the Virtue and Innocence that can be wished for in a Golden Age (Mandible, 1714, p. ). We can apply this notion that vice is the foundation of depicted object prosperity and happiness to the economic mess in the United States today. There came a point in our current economy that people began to realize they were in debt too deep. Many times, applications for credit were doctored so that a consumer could take out more credit than they could really afford. The result was that consumers over-extended and bought multitudes of things hey did not need and could not pay for in pursuit of status.Once this realization set in, people began to back away from the excesses of the previous decade they spent less and tried to save more, they started to sell off their expensive purchases, and they tried to cut back, settling for the day- to-day items neces sary to sustain life. Some economists say this sudden frugality actually made things worse, because when people halt spending, the economy shriveled up. The price of land and houses plummeted, new building stopped, workers in all kinds of industries lost their bobs, factories closed, and the unemployment rate skyrocketed.People started defaulting on loans at an alarming rate. The market was fill up with used motor homes and people were stuck with houses they couldnt afford, but couldnt sell. Foreclosures were (and still are) at an all-time high. It seems the American dream has vanished. While Mandible believed the Vice that causes us to buy things in excess is part of the downfall of the hive Great wealth and foreign treasure, Mandible wrote, will ever scorn to come among men unless youll admit their subjective companions, avarice and usury where trade is considerable, fraud will intrude.To be at once well- bred and sincere is no less than a contradiction and therefore piece of music man advances in knowledge, and his manners are polished, we must expect to see at the same time his desires enlarged, his appetites refined, and his vices increased (Mandible, 1714, p. 201 it is interesting to note that the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Denmark and Norway) have remained relatively stable. In these countries where many people pay 50% of their income in taxes to support their high-benefit welfare system, these systems eve been acting as stabilizers to their economies.If you lose your job in Sweden, you can expect to receive of your wages for the first 200 days of inactivity, up to 680 kronor (EYE) per day, dropping to 70% for the following 100 days. If you lose your job in Norway, you will receive 62% of your previous salary for up to two years (Pouches, 2009). Kristin Halverson, Narrators finance minister, states In these days, we see that a strong welfare state, together with free education and healthcare, has acted as a buffer that stabilizes the economy (P ouches, 2009).Perhaps this is why the Scandinavian entries were affected much less than the United States during the recent recession. I dubiety its because Scandinavia is much less prone to Mandibles concept ofCE. It is much more likely that in a country like the United States where the welfare state has such strong disapproval, the competitive, get ahead at all costs and keep up with the Joneses genius of the American consumer is at fault. It is the do anything, say anything mentality that people are willing to employ to get what they want when they want it, whether they can afford it or not.

Epistemology †Empiricism Essay

Principles like those Parmenides assumed argon said in coeval jargon to be a priori principles, or principles of causal agent, which just means that they argon k right a fashionn prior to experience. It is non that we learn these principles first chronologic anyy hardly rather that our fellowship of them does non depend on our sense experiences. For slip, run across the principle You guttert relieve bingle and provided(prenominal)(a)self some(a)thing start of vigour. If you wished to defend this principle, would you proceed by conducting an experiment in which you tried to fuck off something out of nonhing?In circumstance, you would not. You would humble your defense on our inability to intend of ever makingsomething out of goose egg Everything we know originates from four solutions. The first, our senses, bed be thought of as our primary source of information. Two other sources, reason and intuition, argon derivative in the sense that they fuck off new fac ts from data already supplied to our estimates. The fourth source, authority (or hearsay, or testimony of others), is by nature secondary, and ill- employ fact-claims argon al styles more wiggly and difficult to validate.Other sources of companionship atomic number 18 comm only when claimed, and it is not inconceivable that thither might exist other sources but if they do exist, familiarity derived from them is problematic, and c argonful synopsis usually knocks that they can be subsumed under one or more of the four kn aver sources and essential(prenominal) be seriously distrusted as legitimate, separate sources of reliable information. In summary, what is the nature of our companionship almost the material earth of objects/events?Our familiarity of terra firmaly concern is composed of papers our minds give created on the basis of our sensory experience. It is a stuff of intimacy woven by the mind. cognition is not given to the mind nothing is poured into it. R ather, the mind manufactures perceptions, concepts, ideas, smells, and so forth and holdsthem as working hypotheses more or less external reality. Every idea is a (subjective) working object lesson that enables us to handle real objects/events with some degree of pragmatic efficiency.However persuasive our thoughts and images may be, they argon only remote opposeations of reality they be tools that enable us to deal with reality. It is as though we take a crap nondimensional maps to help us understand four-dimensional territory. The semanticists piss long reminded us to bew be of confusing whatsoever sort of map with the real landscape. The map, they say, is not the territory. An abstraction, by definition, is an idea created by the mind to refer to all objects which, possessing authorized characteristics in common, be thought of in the same class. The number of objects in the class can range from cardinal to infinity. We can refer to all men, all hurricanes, all books, a ll energy-formsall separatelything. tour abstraction-building is an inescapable mental processin fact it is the first step in the organization of our companionship of objects/eventsa serious problem is inherent in the process.At high levels of abstraction we tend to aggroup together objects that reserve but a few qualities in common, and our abstractionsmay be almost meaningless, without our intimate it. We fall into the habit of using familiar abstractions and fail to realize how abandon they are. For illustration, what do the objects in the next abstractions tolerate in common? All atheists, all Western imperialists, all blacks or all whites (and if you recall its skin color, think twice), all conservatives, all trees, all French people, all Christians.When we think in much(prenominal) high-level abstractions, it is often the case that we are communicating nothing meaningful at all. The item-by-item object or event we are naming, of course, has no name and belongsto no class until we put it in one. Going as far back as Plato, philosophers defecate traditionally defined knowledge as authoritative justified belief.A priori knowledge is knowledge that is justified independently of (or prior to) experience. What salmagundis of knowledge could be justified without any appeal to experience? Certainly, we can know the legality of definitions and logical truths apart from experience. Hence, definitions and logically necessary truths are examples of a priori knowledge. For example, All unicorns are one-horned creatures is align by definition.Similarly, the follo acquireg give tongue toment is a sure bet Either my universitys football team testament win their next racy or they wont. Even if they tie or the game is canceled, this would fulfill the they wont win part of the prediction. Hence, this statement expresses a logically necessary truth to the highest degree the football team. These 2 statements are cases of a priori knowledge. Notice th at in the fussy examples of a priori knowledge I have chosen, they do not give us any real, factual information roughly the conception. Even though the statement or so unicorns is true, it does not secern us whether on that point are any unicorns in the universe of discourse.Similarly, the football prediction does not tell us the actual out grow of the game. Experience of the world is required to know these things. The second kind of knowledge is a posteriori knowledge, or knowledge that is found on (or posterior to) experience. Similarly, the adjective empirical refers to anything that is based on experience. Any claims based on experience purport to add new information to the subject. Hence, peeing freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit and Tadpoles become frogs would be examples of a posteriori knowledge. We know the freezing point of piss and the life cycle of tadpoles through experience.Thus far, most philosophers would agree on these points. The difficult question now aris es Is at that place any a priori knowledge that does give us knowledge approximately the real world? What would that be like? It would be knowledge expressible in a statement such that (a) its truth is not determined solely by the meaning of its terms and (b) it does bring home the bacon information about the way the world is. Furthermore, since it is a priori, it would be knowledge that we could justify through reason, independently of experience. The question, then, is whether or not reason alone can tell us about the ultimate nature of reality. 1.Is it possible to have knowledge at all? 2. Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience? 3. Does our knowledge represent reality as it really is? free cerebration claims that reason or the intellect is the primary source of our of import knowledge about reality. Nonpositivists agree that we can use reason to draw conclusions from the information provided by sense experience. However, what distingu ishes the rationalists is that they claim that reason can give us knowledge apart from experience.For example, the rationalists point out that we can induce at mathematical truths about circlesor triangles without having to measure, experiment with, or experience broadside or triangular objects. We do so by bring to passing rational, deductive proofs that lead to absolutely indubitable conclusions that are always worldwidely true of the world outside(a) our minds (a priori knowledge about the world).Obviously, the rationalists think the second question should be answered affirmatively. Empiricism is the claim that sense experience is the sole source of our knowledge about the world. Empiricists affirm that when we start life, the original equipment of our intellect is a tabula rasa, or blank tablet.Only through experience does that empty mind become filled with content. Various empiricists give different explanations of the nature of logical and mathematical truths. They are a ll agreed, however, that these truths are not already latent in the mind before we discover them and that there is no genuine a priori knowledge about the nature of reality. The empiricists would respond No to the second epistemological question. With respect to question 3, both the rationalists and the empiricists think that our knowledge does represent reality as it really is.Constructivism is used in this discussion to refer to the claim that knowledge is neither already in the mind nor passively received from experience, but that the mind constructs knowledge out of the materials of experience. Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, introduced this view. He was influenced by both the rationalists and the empiricists and gibek to reach a compromise between them. While Kant did not agree with the rationalists on everything, he did view we can have a priori knowledge of the world as we experience it.Although Kant did not use this label, I call his position construc tivismto capture his distinctive account of knowledge. One troubling consequence of his view was that be apparent movement the mind imposes its own order on experience, we can never know reality as it is in itself. We can only know reality as it appears to us after it has been filtered and processed by our minds.Hence, Kant answers question 3 negatively. Nevertheless, because Kant thought our minds all have the same cognitive structure, he thought we are able to arrive at universal and objective knowledge within the boundaries of the human situation. Before reading further, look at the highway picture for an example of a classicexperiment in perception.Did you get the right answer, or were your eyes fooled? One way that unbelievers attack knowledge claims is to point to all the ways in which we have been deceived by illusions. Our experience with perceptual illusions lay downs that in the past we have been mistaken about what we thought we knew. These mistakes lead, the deist cla ims, to the conclusion that we can never be certain about our beliefs, from which it follows that our beliefs are not justified. Another, similar schema of the sceptic is to point to the possibility that our apprehension of reality could be systematically errored in some way.The story of Ludwig, the brain in the vat who experienced a false virtual reality, would be an example of this strategy. Another strategy is to suppose that there is an inherent flaw in human psychology such that our beliefs never correspond to reality. I call these possible scenarios universal belief falsifiers. The characteristics of a universal belief falsifier are (1) it is a theoretically possible state of affairs, (2) we have no way of knowing if this state of affairs is actual or not, and (3) if this state of affairs is actual, we would never be able to distinguish beliefs that are truefrom beliefs that count to be true but are actually false. Note that the skeptic does not need to prove that these pos sibilities are actual.For example, the skeptic does not have to establish that we really are brains in a vat, but that that this condition is possible. Furthermore, the skeptic need not claim that all our beliefs are false. The skeptics point is simply that we have no fail-safe method for determining when our beliefs are true or false. Given this circumstance, the skeptic will argue that we cannot distinguish the situation of having evidence that leads to true beliefs from the situation of having the same sort of evidenceplus a universal belief falsifier, which leads to false beliefs. Obviously, the skeptic believes that nothing is beyond uncertainness.For any one of our beliefs, we can imagine a set of circumstances in which it would be false. For example, I believe I was born in Rahway, New Jersey. However, my birth certificate could be inaccurate. Furthermore, for whatever reasons, my parents may have wished to keep the truth from me. I will never know for sure. I also believe that there is overwhelming evidence that Adolf Hitler committed suicide at the close of ball War II. However, it could be true (as conspiracytheorists maintain) that his death was faked and that he lived a long life in South America after the war. The theme of the skeptic is that certainty is necessary for there to be knowledge, and if precariousness is possible, then we do not have certainty. We now have the considerations in place that the skeptic uses to make his or her case. There are many varieties of skeptical subscriber lines, each one exploiting some possible flaw in either human cognition or the alleged evidence we use to justify our beliefs. or else of presenting various specific arguments, we can consider a generic skeptical argument. Generic Skeptical disputation 1. We can find reasons for doubting any one of our beliefs. 2. It follows that we can doubt all our beliefs. 3. If we can doubt all our beliefs, then we cannot be certain of any of them. 4. If we do not hav e certainty about any of our beliefs, then we do not have knowledge. 5. Therefore, we do not have knowledge. Pyrrho of Elis (360270 B. C. ), a philosopher in ancient Greece, inspired a skeptical movement that bore his name (Pyrrhonian skepticism).Pyrrho was skeptical concerning sense experience. He argued that for experience to be a source of knowledge, our sense datamust agree with reality. hardly it is infeasible to jump outside our experience to see how it compares with the external world. So, we can never know whether our experience is expectant us accurate information about reality. Furthermore, rational argument cannot give us knowledge either, Pyrrho said, because for every argument supporting one side of an issue, another argument can be constructed to prove the opposing case.Hence, the two arguments cancel each other out and they are equally in assembleive in atomic number 82 us to the truth. The followers of Pyrrho stressed that we can make claims only about how thing s appear to us.You can say, The edulcorate appears to me to be sweet but not, The honey is sweet. The best approach, according to these skeptics, was to suspend judgment whenever possible and make no assumptions at all. They believed that skeptical detachment would lead to serenity. Dont worry about what you cannot know, they advised. many skeptics distilled these arguments down into two simple theses. First, nothing is self-evident, for any axiom we start with can be doubted. Second, nothing can be proven, for either we will have an infinite regress of reasons that support our previousreasons or we will end up assuming what we are trying to prove.Descartes began his quest for knowledge with the assumption that if he had rational certainty concerning his beliefs, he inevitably had knowledge, and if he did not have certainty, he did not have knowledge. The skeptics who came after Descartes agreed with this assumption. However, as we will see in the next section, Descartes argues that there are a number of things of which we can be certain and, hence, we do have knowledge. On the other hand, the skeptics doubt whether Descartes or anyone can achieve such certainty.Lacking any grounds for certainty, the skeptics claim we cannot have knowledge about the real world. Thus, the skeptics think that Descartess arguments for skepticism are stronger than his proposed answers. Such a philosopher was David Hume, whom we will encounter by and by when we examine empir EXAMINING THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF SKEPTICISM Positive Evaluation 1. Weeding a garden is not sufficient to make flowers grow, but it does do something valuable. In what way could the skeptics be viewed as providing a philosophical weeding service by undercutting beliefs that are naively taken for granted?2. The skeptics are unsettling because they force us to reexamine our most fundamental beliefs. Is it collapse to live in naive innocence, never questioning anything, or is it sometimes worthwhile to have your beliefs challenged? negative Evaluation 1. The skeptics make the following claim Knowledge is impossible. scarce isnt this claim itself a knowledge claim that they declare is true? Is the skeptic being inconsistent? 2. The skeptics use the argument from illusion to show that we cannot trust our senses.But could we ever know that there are illusions or that sometimes our senses are deceivedunless there were occasions when our senses werent deceived? 3. Some skeptics would have us believe that it is possible that all our beliefs are false. But would the human race have survived if there was never a correspondence between some of our beliefs and the way reality is constituted?We believe that fire burns, water quenches thirst, vegetables nourish us, and eating sand doesnt. If we didnt have some sort of built-in mechanism orienting us toward true beliefs, how could we be as happy as we are in dealing with reality? 4. Is skepticism liveable? Try yelling to individual who claims to be a skeptic, Watch outfor that falling tree limb Why is it that a skeptic will always look up? Think of other ways in which skeptics might take the stand that they do believe they can find out what is true or false about the world. 5. Is Descartess demand for absolute certainty unreasonable?Cant we have justified beliefs based on inferences to the best explanation, probability, or practical certainty? Does certainty have to be either 100 portion or 0 percent? The answer is that our reason tells us that something cannot come from nothing and material objects do not vanish into thin air. We will distrust our senses beforewe will abandon these beliefs.Hence, our reason seems to have veto power over our sense experience. We often trust our reason even in the calculate of apparently solid, experiential evidence. The rationalists raise this trust in reason into a full-fledged theory of knowledge. Rationalism is a very influential theory about the source and nature of know ledge. This position may be summarized in terms of the third anchor points of rationalism. These three points are responses to the second question of epistemology, Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience?Reason Is the Primary or Most top-flight Source of Knowledge about Reality According to the rationalist, it is through reason that we truly understand the fundamental truths about reality. For example, most rationalists would say the truths in the following lists are some very basic truths about the world that will never change. Although our experience certainly does illustrate most of these beliefs, our experiences always consist of par-ticular, concrete events. Hence, no experiences of seeing, feeling, hearing, tasting, or touching specific objects can tell us that these statements will always be true for everyfuture event we encounter.The rationalist claims that the following statements represent a priori truths about the world. They are a priori because they can be known apart from experience, yet they tell us what the world is like. ordered TRUTHS A and not-A cannot both be true at the same time (where A represents some bid or claim). This truth is called the law of noncontradiction. (For example, the statement prat is married and John is not married is necessarily false. ) If the statement X is true and the statement If X, then Y is true, then it necessarily follows that the statement Y is true.MATHEMATICAL TRUTHSThe area of a triangle will always be one-half the length of the base times its height. If X is larger than Y and Y is larger than Z, then X is larger than Z. metaphysical TRUTHS Every event has a cause. An object with contradictory properties cannot exist. (No matter how long we search, we will never find a round square. ) ETHICAL PRINCIPLES Some basic moral obligations are not optional. It is morally scathe to maliciously torture someone for the fun of it. sand Experience Is an Unreliable and Inade quate Route to Knowledge Rationalists typically emphasize the fact that sense experience is relative, changing, and often illusory.An object will look one way in artificial light and will look different in sunlight. Our eyes seem to see water on the road on a hot day, but the image is merely an optical illusion. The rationalist claims that we need our reason to sort out what is appearance from what is reality. Although it is obvious that a rationalist could not get through life without some reliance on sense experience, the rationalist denies that sense experience is the only source of knowledge about reality. Furthermore, experience can tell us only about particular things in the world.However, it cannot give us universal, foundational truthsabout reality. Sensory experience can tell me about the properties of this ball, but it cannot tell me about the properties of spheres in general. Experience can tell me that when I immingle these two oranges with those two oranges, they add u p to four oranges. However, only reason can tell me that two plus two will always equal four and that this result will be true not only for these oranges, or all oranges, but for anything whatsoever. The Fundamental Truths about the World Can Be Known A Priori They Are Either Innate or Self-Evident to Our Minds Innate ideas are ideas that are inborn.They are ideas or principles that the mind already reverses prior to experience. The notion of innate ideas is commonly found in rationalistic philosophies, but it is rejected by the empiricists. The theory of innate ideas views the mind like a calculator that comes from the factory with numerous programs already loaded on its disk, waiting to be activated. Hence, rationalists say that such ideas as the laws of logic, the concept of justness, or the idea of perfection are already contained deep within the mind and only need to be brought to the level of conscious awareness. Innate ideas should not be confused with instinct.Instinct is a noncognitive set of mechanical behaviors, such as blinking the eyes when an object approaches them. The theory of innate ideas is one account of how we can have a priori knowledge. Other rationalists believe that if the mind does not already contain these ideas, they are, at least, either self-evident or natural to the mind and the mind has a natural sensitiveness to recognize them. For example, Gottfried Leibniz (16461716), a German rationalist, compared the mind to a block of marble that contains veins or natural divide points that allow only one sort of shape to be formed within it.Thus, the mind, like the marble, has an innate structure that results in inclinations, dispositions, habits, or natural capacities to think in certain ways. In contrast to this view, John Locke (a British empiricist) said There is nothing in the intellect that was not first in the senses. In response, Leibniz tagged the following rationalistic qualification at the end of Lockes formula, except for the intellect itself. Obviously, in saying that the mind contains rational ideas or dispositions, the rationalists do not believe a baby is thinking about the theorems of geometry.Instead, they claimthat when a person achieves a certain level of cognitive development, he or she will be capable of realizing the self-evident truth of certain ideas. Leibniz pointed out that there is a remnant between the mind containing rational principles and being aware of them. Rationalists give different accounts of how the mind acquired innate ideas in the first place. Socrates and Plato believed that our souls preexisted our current life and received knowledge from a previous form of existence. Theistic rationalists, such as Descartes, tend to believe that God implanted these ideas within us.Others simply claim that these principles or ideas naturally accompany rational minds such as ours. THE RATIONALISTS ANSWERS TO THE THREE EPISTEMOLOGICAL QUESTIONS Section 2. 0 contained three question s concerning knowledge (1) Is knowledge possible? (2) Does reason provide us with knowledge of the world independently of experience? and (3) Does our knowledge represent reality as it really is? While differing on the details, all the rationalists give the same answers to these three questions. First, they all believe that knowledge is possible. Generally, we are able to discern that some opinions are better than others.For example, in the discipline of mathematics some answers are true and some are false. We could not know this fact if obtaining knowledge was impossible. Second, the rationalists agree that only through reason can we find an adequate basis for knowledge.For example, in mathematics and logic we are able through reason alone to arrive at truths that are absolutely certain and necessarily true. Third, rationalists agree that beliefs that are based on reason do represent reality as it truly is. In the following sections, I examine three classical rationalists to see ho w they illustrate the three anchor points of rationalism andanswer the three epistemological questions.Socrates answers to the three epistemological questions should be clear. (1) We are able to distinguish true opinions from false ones, so we must know the standards for making this distinction. (2) These standards could not be derived from experience so they must be unpacked through a rational investigation of the man-make lake of all truththe soul. (3) Since our rational knowledge provides us with information that enables us to deal successfully with the world and our own lives, it must be giving us an accurate picture of reality.However, according to Plato, since thephysical world is constantly changing, sense perception gives us only relative and temporary information about changing, particular things. Being a typical rationalist, Plato thought that ultimate knowledge must be objective, constant, and universal. Furthermore, he argued that there is a difference between true opin ions and knowledge, for our beliefs must be rationally justified to qualify as knowledge. Finally, Plato believed that the object of knowledge must be something that really exists.Plato and the utilisation of Reason Do mathematical truths, such as those in the multiplication tables, exist within the mindor do they exist outside the mind? Plato would say both. If mathematical truths exist only in the mind, then why does physical reality conform to these truths? If mathematical truths are only mind-dependent ideas, then why cant we make the truths about triangles be anything we decide them to be? The world of Alices Adventures in Wonderland was created in the mind of Lewis Carroll. He could have made the worlds properties be anything he decided. But obviously, we cant make up such rules for the properties of numbers. We dont create these truths we discover them.Thus, Plato would argue, these truths are objective and independent of our minds. But if they are independent of our minds, then they must refer to something that exists in reality. Although the number seven, for example, has objective properties that we discover, these properties are not physical. We do not learn the truths about numbers by seeing, tasting, hearing, smelling, or touching them. From this concept, Plato concludes that the world of mathematics consists of a set of objective, mindindependent truths and a domain of nonphysical reality that we know only through reason. What about justice?What color is it? How tall is it? How much does it weigh? Clearly, these questions can apply to physical things, but it is meaningless to name justice in terms of observable properties. Furthermore, no society is perfectly just. Hence, we have never seen an example of perfect justice in human history, only frail, human attempts to approximate it. Because reason can mull over Justice Itself,* we can evaluate the deficient, limited degrees of justice found in particular societies.Particular nations come and g o and the degree of justice they manifest can rise or fall. But the objects of genuine knowledgesuch as true Justice or true Circularity are eternal and unchanging standards and objects of knowledge. Plato on Universals and the Knowledge of Reality Thus far, Plato has argued that there are some things that we could not know about (Justice, Goodness, Equality) if experience was our only source of knowledge.The soul must have somehow acquired knowledge independently of the senses. But what, exactly, are the objects of this special sort of knowledge? In answering this question, Plato builds on the distinction he has made between the here-and-now realm of sense experience and the unchanging realm of rational knowledge.He says that in the world of sense experience we find that particulars fall into a number of stable, universal categories. Without these categories, we could not identify anything or talk about particulars at all. For example, Tom, Andre, Maria, and Lakatria are all distin ct individuals, yet we can use the universal term human being to refer to each of them. In spite of their differences, something about them is the same. Corresponding to each common name (such as human, dog, justice) is a Universal that consists of the essential, common properties of anything within that category.Circular objects (coins, rings, wreathes, roving orbits) all have the Universal of Circularity in common. Particular objects that are beautiful (roses, seashells, persons, sunsets, paintings) all divide the Universal of Beauty. Particulars come into being, change, and pass away but Universals reside in an eternal, unchanging world. The rose grows from a bud, becomes a beautiful flower, and then turns brown and ugly and fades away. Yet the Universal of Beauty (or Beauty Itself ) rest eternally the same.Plato believes that Universals are more than concepts, they are actually the constituentsof reality. Hence, in answer to the third epistemological question, Plato believes that knowledge of Universals provides us with knowledge of the fundamental features of reality, which are nonphysical, eternal, and unchanging. Plato also refers to these Universals as Forms. The following thought experiment will help you appreciate Platos emphasis on Universals and universal truth. Descartes on the Possibility of Knowledge Although Descartes was certain he could not be deceived about his own existence, the possibility of a Great Deceiver throw out a shadow over all his other beliefs.Unless he could find something external to his mind that would vouch that the contents of his mind represented reality, there was little hope for having any knowledge other than that of his own existence. Descartes sought this guarantee in an all-powerful, good God. Hence, Descartes says, As soon as the opportunity arises I must examine whether there is a God, and, if there is, whether he can be a deceiver. For if I do not know this, it seems that I can never be quite certain about a nything else. 12 If Descartes could prove that such a God exists, then he could know that knowledge is possible.But nib how limited are the materials Descartes has at his disposal for proving Gods existence. He cannot employ an empirical argument based on the nature of the external world, for that is an issue that is still in doubt. So, he must construct a rationalistic argument that reasons only from the contents of his own mind. STOP AND THINK Descartes on the Role of Reason In the following passage from Meditation III, Descartes says the natural light of reason shows him that (1) something cannot arise from nothing and (2) there must be at least as much reality in the cause as there is in the effect. What examples does he use to illustrate each of these principles? How does he apply these two principles to the existence of his own ideas? The argument that Descartes has given us in the previous passages can be summarized in this way 1. Something cannot be derived from nothing. ( In other words, all effects, including ideas, are caused by something. ) 2. There must be at least as much reality in the cause as there is in the effect. 3. I have an idea of God (as an infinite and perfect being). 4. The idea of God in my mind is an effect that was caused by something.5. I am finite and imperfect, and thus I could not be the cause of the idea of an infinite and perfect God. 6. Only an infinite and perfect being could be the cause of such an idea. 7. Therefore, God (an infinite and perfect being) exists. THE THREE ANCHOR POINTS OF EMPIRICISM The Only Source of Genuine Knowledge Is Sense Experience The empiricists compare the mind to a blank tablet upon which experience makes its marks. Without experience, they claim, we would lack not only knowledge of the specific features of the world, but also the ability even to con.